Harapan ku dan temanku

aku dan temanku mempunayi masalah yang sama dengan orang tua ku?
kami memiliki pasangan masing2 dan masalah yang sama. kami tidak direstui oleh orang tua kami.
kami tidak tahu alasan kenapa alasan mereka tidak menyetujui hubungan / kisah asmara dengan pacar kami.
orang tuaku mengingin aku mempunyai pacar yang minimal sepadan dengan aku dan memiliki derajat yang tinggi.
tapi menurut ku, itu tidak mungkin jika aku tidak menyayanginya dan percuma memilikin derajat yang tinggi
yang aku butuhkan bukan  harta dan tahta. tapi cinta dan kasih sayang  kare na aku yakin cinta dan kasih sayang yang tulus itu membuat aku kuat dan akan melindungi ku kapan aza.
lain lagi halnya dengan masalah yang dihadapi oleh temanku. dia tidak direstui karena perbedaan umur yang terlampau jauh. orang tuanya tidak menyetujuinya karena mereka khwatir kalau pasangannya itu telah memiiki pasangan sebelumnya.
m,enurutku cinta bisa datang pada siapa aza dan kapan aza. tanpa melihat siapa dy, perbedaan umur, harta, arentahta dan jabatan.
karena pada dasarnya cinta adalah anugrah, yang memberikan kehangatan bagi siapa saja yang memiliki cinta

HOLLOW HOLIDAYS

Hollow Holidays

Holidays lights, like nighttime flowers, are blossoming in the dusk. There seem to be more of them than usual this year, but that might just be because I'm spending more time walking than I used to. I just got back from a 5 mile walk through the surrounding neighborhoods, during which I watched the sun set and halfheartedly wandered through a few stores, looking for Christmas presents.

This will be my first holiday season with no parents. I'm still in the middle of dealing with all of the financial and legal matters surrounding my dad's passing, and I'm finding it's a slow process. It might be that I'm making it slow, only dealing with a certain number of things a day, or it might be that others are making it slow, taking their time to get back to me. As usual, I'm sure the truth takes the middle ground. The legal and financial worlds are alien worlds, and they speak strange languages there. I'm sure that in time the dust will settle.

I'm off work for the next two weeks, and there is much to do. I feel like I'm in a bit of a slump today, and I'm hoping that will wear off when I head out the door to go see Marissa Nadler perform in San Francisco tonight. Live music always helps.

contoh contoh RPP SMA

RENCANA PELAKSANAAN PEMBELAJARAN

Nama  Sekolah                  : SMA NEGERI 1 CIRUAS

Mata pelajaran                 : Bahasa Inggris

Kelas / semester              : X / 1

Materi  pokok                   :  teks monolog berbentuk narrative

Aspek / skill                       :  menulis ( writing )

Alokasi waktu                   : 2 × 45 menit

Standar  kompetensi  ( SK ) :

1.       Mengungkapkan makna dalam teks fungsional pendek dan esei sederhana berbentuk rtecount, narrative, dan procedure dalam konteks kehidupan sehari hari.

Kompetensi  dasar  ( KD ) :

1.       Mengungkapkan makna dan langkah langkah retorika dalam esei sederhana secara akurat , lancar, dan berterima dalam konteks kehidupan sehari hari dalam teks berbentuk narrative.

Indicator :

1.       Memahami kalimat past perfect tense

2.       Mengidentifikasikan kalimat past perfect tense dalam teks narrative

3.       Membuat kalimat dalam bentuk past perfect tense

1.tujuan pembelajarn

1.       Siswa dapat memahami kalimat past  perfect tense dalam teks narrative

2.       Siswa dapat mengidentifikasikan kalimat past perfect tense dalam teks narrative

3.       Siswa dapat membuat kalimat dalam bentuk past perfect tense

2.Materi  Pembelajaran

1.       Narrative text

The Three Sheiks and Queen of Arabia
Maura, who liked to be thought of as the most beautiful and powerful queen of Arabia, had many suitors. One by one she discarded them, until her list was reduced to just three sheiks, all equally young and handsome, rich and strong. It was very hard to decide who would be the best of them.
One evening, Maura disguised herself and went to the camp of the three sheiks, as they were about to have dinner, and asked them for something to eat.
The first gave her some leftover food; the second gave her some unappetizing camel's tail; the third sheik, who was called Hakim, offered her some of the most tender and tasty meat. After dinner, the disguised queen left the sheiks' camp.
The following day the queen invited the three sheiks to dinner at her palace. She ordered her servants to give each one exactly what they had given her the evening before.
Hakim, who received a plate of delicious meat, refused to eat it if the other two could not share it with him, and this act finally convinced Queen Maura that he was the man for her.
"Without question, Hakim is the most generous of you," she announced her choice to the sheiks."

2.       tense : past perfect tense

v  The purpose of past perfect tense  :  to talk about an event on which happened before some other past event

v  The pattern of past perfect tense :

( + )  subjek  +  had + verb 3

 ( - )  subjek + had not + verb 3

( ? ) Had + subjek + verb 3 ?

v  Example of past perfect tense sentence  :

( + ) she had written a letter

( - ) she had not written a letter

( ? ) had she written a letter ?

v  The signal ( tanda waktu ) of past perfect tense :

When, before, after , until

The pattern :

§  Past perfect tense  ( s + had +  v3 + o/c  ) + when / before + past tense ( s + v2 + o/c)

§  Past tense ( s+ v2 + o/c ) + after / until + past perfect tense ( s + had + v3 + o/c )

§  Example

1.   I had taken a bath when my mother cooked the rice in the kitchen .

2.  She had gone to school before she went to market

3.  My friend read a story book after  she had finished her homework

4. Dady was ill until he had died.

3.metode / teknik pembelajaran : three phase technique

4. langkah langkah kegiatan :

v  Kegiatan awal  :

Ø  Salam dan tegur sapa

Ø  Mengecek kehadiran siswa

Ø  Memberikan apersepsi : siswa menjawab bebrapa pertanyaan yang berhubungan dengan tema yang akan diajarkan

v  Kegiatan inti :

Ø  Siswa memperhatikan penjelasan penggunaan past perfect tense dan menggunakannya dalam teks narrative

Ø  Siswa membahas contoh kalimat yang menggunakan rumus past perfect tense dalam bentuk positive ( + ) , negative ( - ) dan interrogative ( ? )

Ø   Siswa membahas contoh kalimat past perfect tense yang duhubungkan dengan kalimat past tense dengan conjunction : when, before, after, dan until .

Ø   Siswa berlatih membuat kalimat dalam bentuk past perfect tense

Ø   Siswa bertannya pada guru mengenai  kesulitannya

Ø  Siswa mendapatkan feedback dari guru

v  Kegiatan akhir  :

Ø  Menanyakan kesulitan siswa selama KBM

Ø  Merefleksikan dan membat kesimpulan dari  materi pembelajaran yang telah dipelajari

Ø  Menutup dengan motivasi,harapan,  dan salam.

5.Sumber / bahan / alat pembelajran :

·   LKS

·  Buku English grammar for general application . dony hariyanto dan Drs. Rudy Hariyono . Gita              

·  media press

6.Penilaian :

·         tes tulis

·         bentuk uraian

·         instrument

The Three Sheiks and Queen of Arabia
Maura, who liked to be thought of as the most beautiful and powerful queen of Arabia, had many suitors. One by one she discarded them, until her list was reduced to just three sheiks, all equally young and handsome, rich and strong. It was very hard to decide who would be the best of them.
One evening, Maura disguised herself and went to the camp of the three sheiks, as they were about to have dinner, and asked them for something to eat.
The first gave her some leftover food; the second gave her some unappetizing camel's tail; the third sheik, who was called Hakim, offered her some of the most tender and tasty meat. After dinner, the disguised queen left the sheiks' camp.
The following day the queen invited the three sheiks to dinner at her palace. She ordered her servants to give each one exactly what they had given her the evening before.
Hakim, who received a plate of delicious meat, refused to eat it if the other two could not share it with him, and this act finally convinced Queen Maura that he was the man for her.
"Without question, Hakim is the most generous of you," she announced her choice to the sheiks." So it is Hakim I will marry."

1.      What does the story teach us ?

2.      The three sheiks were not ?

3.       Which statement is TRUE about the queen?

4.       The Queen ordered her servants to give the sheiks the same kind of food she got from the evening before because ?

5.      Find the past perfect tense from the story above?

Kunci jawaban

1.      If we want to give something to other people ,we shall give the best

2.      Gloomy

3.      The queen was very proud hr beauty and riches

4.      She wanted to see the sheiks reactions

5.      Had many suitors, they had given her the evening before

4.pedoman penilaian

·         Isi benar,tata bahasa benar diberi skor 3

·         Isi benar,tata bahasa kurang tepat diberi skor 2

·         Isi dan tata bahasa tidak benar diberi skor 1

·         Tidak ada jawaban 0

·         Skor maksimal 5 ×3 = 15

·         Nilai maksimal   = 100

·         Nilai siswa = skor perolehan : skor maksimal ×100

 

 

Mengetahui                                                                                               Serang,14september2011

Guru pamong                                                                                                 Guru Mata pelajaran

                                                                                                                       

Budi Setiono S.Pd                                                                                         Rifatul Hidayati

Nip19610115198511002.                                                                               Nim. 082300427

 

 

 

 

 

case study research

CASE STUDY RESEARCH

A.    Definition of Case Study

A case study is defined in terms of the unit of analysis. That is, a case study is a study of one case. A case study researcher focuses attention on a single entity, usually as it exist in its naturally occurring environtment.

 Kemmis ( 1976) state that of case study should not be equated with observational studies  as this would rule out historical case studies, that case studies are not simply pre- experimental, and that case study is not term for a standar methodological package.

According  Zonabend (1992) stated that case study is done by giving special attention to completeness in observation, reconstruction, and analysis of the cases under study. Case study is done in a way that incorporates the views of the "actors" in the case under study.

Although case studies have often been used to sensitise researches to significant variables subsequently manipulated or controlled in an experimental design, that is not their only row. The understandings generated by case study are significant in their own right. It is tempting to argue that the accumulation of case studies allows theory-building via tentative hypotheses culled from the accumulation of single instances. But the generalization produced in case study are no less legitimate when about the instance, rather than the class from which the instance is drawn.

According Robert stake in book entitle “the art of case study research”,  ‘case study is the study of the particularity and understand its activity within important circumstances’ (1995 : xi). While case studies can be carried out in relation to quantitative research.

Researcher Robert K.Yin in book entitled “ Application of case study research volume 3 from applied social Research method series” defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context : when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence.

            Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.

Case studies are not a new form of research; naturalistic inquiry was the primary research tool until the development of the scientific method. The fields of sociology and anthropology are credited with the primary shaping of the concept as we know it today. However, case study research has drawn from a number of other areas as well: the clinical methods of doctors; the casework technique being developed by social workers; the methods of historians and anthropologists, plus the qualitative descriptions provided by quantitative researchers like LePlay; and, in the case of Robert Park, the techniques of newspaper reporters and novelists.

According Norman Denzin in book entitled “hand book of qualitative research” case study is expected to catch the complexity of a single case.

Case study is defined in various ways and it is probably to say what a case study is not rather than what it is. While it would seem reasonably clear that the study o an individual language learner is a case and that the same can be said for the study of an individual classroom.

B.     History of Case Study

Park was an ex-newspaper reporter and editor who became very influential in developing sociological case studies at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. As a newspaper professional he coined the term "scientific" or "depth" reporting: the description of local events in a way that pointed to major social trends. Park viewed the sociologist as "merely a more accurate, responsible, and scientific reporter." Park stressed the variety and value of human experience. He believed that sociology sought to arrive at natural, but fluid, laws and generalizations in regard to human nature and society. These laws weren't static laws of the kind sought by many positivists and natural law theorists, but rather, they were laws of becoming--with a constant possibility of change. Park encouraged students to get out of the library, to quit looking at papers and books, and to view the constant experiment of human experience. He writes, "Go and sit in the lounges of the luxury hotels and on the doorsteps of the flophouses; sit on the Gold Coast settees and on the slum shakedowns; sit in the Orchestra Hall and in the Star and Garter Burlesque. In short, gentlemen [sic], go get the seats of your pants dirty in real research."

But over the years, case studies have drawn their share of criticism. In fact, the method had its detractors from the start. In the 1920s, the debate between pro-qualitative and pro-quantitative became quite heated. Case studies, when compared to statistics, were considered by many to be unscientific. From the 1930s on, the rise of positivism had a growing influence on quantitative methods in sociology. People wanted static, generalizable laws in science. The sociological positivists were looking for stable laws of social phenomena. They criticized case study research because it failed to provide evidence of inter subjective agreement. Also, they condemned it because of the few number of cases studied and that the understandardized character of their descriptions made generalization impossible. By the 1950s, quantitative methods, in the form of survey research, had become the dominant sociological approach and case study had become a minority practice.

C.     Objectives Of Study

The primary goal of the case study is to give users an opportunity to see how the image guidelines apply in the context of an actual lab, and how they intersect with issues of mentoring, authorship and technical training; a secondary goal is to reinforce the understanding of the rules guiding image presentation. The case study also aims to help users identify various temptations and pressures that make misconduct more likely, and to reflect on ways to avoid those temptations.

D.    Designing Case Studies

Yin (1994) identified five components of research design that are important for case studies:

• A study's questions
• Its propositions, if any
• Its unit(s) of analysis
• The logic linking the data to the propositions
• The criteria for interpreting the findings (Yin, 1994, p. 20).

The study's questions are most likely to be "how" and "why" questions, and their definition is the first task of the researcher. The study's propositions sometimes derive from the "how" and "why" questions, and are helpful in focusing the study's goals. Not all studies need to have propositions. An exploratory study, rather than having propositions, would have a stated purpose or criteria on which the success will be judged. The unit of analysis defines what the case is. This could be groups, organizations or countries, but it is the primary unit of analysis. Linking the data to propositions and the criteria for interpreting the findings are the least developed aspects in case studies (Yin, 1994).

Campbell (1975) described "pattern-matching" as a useful technique for linking data to the propositions. Campbell (1975) asserted that pattern-matching is a situation where several pieces of information from the same case may be related to some theoretical proposition. His study showed, through pattern-matching, that the observed drop in the level of traffic fatalities in Connecticut was not related to the lowering of the speed limit. His study also illustrated some of the difficulties in establishing the criteria for interpreting the findings.

Construct validity is especially problematic in case study research. It has been a source of criticism because of potential investigator subjectivity. Yin (1994) proposed three remedies to counteract this: using multiple sources of evidence, establishing a chain of evidence, and having a draft case study report reviewed by key informants. Internal validity is a concern only in causal (explanatory) cases. This is usually a problem of "inferences" in case studies, and can be dealt with using pattern-matching, which has been described above. External validity deals with knowing whether the results are generalizable beyond the immediate case. Some of the criticism against case studies in this area relate to single-case studies. However, that criticism is directed at the statistical and not the analytical generalization that is the basis of case studies. Reliability is achieved in many ways in a case study. One of the most important methods is the development of the case study protocol.

Case studies can be either single or multiple-case designs. Single cases are used to confirm or challenge a theory, or to represent a unique or extreme case (Yin, 1994). Single-case studies are also ideal for revelatory cases where an observer may have access to a phenomenon that was previously inaccessible. Single-case designs require careful investigation to avoid misrepresentation and to maximize the investigator's access to the evidence. These studies can be holistic or embedded, the latter occurring when the same case study involves more than one unit of analysis. Multiple-case studies follow a replication logic. This is not to be confused with sampling logic where a selection is made out of a population, for inclusion in the study. This type of sample selection is improper in a case study. Each individual case study consists of a "whole" study, in which facts are gathered from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts.

Yin (1994) asserted that a case study investigator must be able to operate as a senior investigator during the course of data collection. There should be a period of training which begins with the examination of the definition of the problem and the development of the case study design. If there is only a single investigator, this might not be necessary. The training would cover aspects that the investigator needs to know, such as: the reason for the study, the type of evidence being sought, and what variations might be expected. This could take the form of discussion rather than formal lectures.

A case study protocol contains more than the survey instrument, it should also contain procedures and general rules that should be followed in using the instrument. It is to be created prior to the data collection phase. It is essential in a multiple-case study, and desirable in a single-case study. Yin (1994) presented the protocol as a major component in asserting the reliability of the case study research. A typical protocol should have the following sections:

• An overview of the case study project (objectives, issues, topics being investigated)
• Field procedures (credentials and access to sites, sources of information)
• Case study questions (specific questions that the investigator must keep in mind during data collection)
• A guide for case study report (outline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p. 64).

The overview should communicate to the reader the general topic of inquiry and the purpose of the case study. The field procedures mostly involve data collection issues and must be properly designed. The investigator does not control the data collection environment (Yin, 1994) as in other research strategies; hence the procedures become all the more important. During interviews, which by nature are open ended, the subject's schedule must dictate the activity (Stake, 1995). Gaining access to the subject organization, having sufficient resources while in the field, clearly scheduling data collection activities, and providing for unanticipated events, must all be planned for.

Case study questions are posed to the investigator, and must serve to remind that person of the data to be collected and its possible sources. The guide for the case study report is often neglected, but case studies do not have the uniform outline, as do other research reports. It is essential to plan this report as the case develops, to avoid problems at the end.

Stake (1995), and Yin (1994) identified at least six sources of evidence in case studies. The following is not an ordered list, but reflects the research of both Yin (1994) and Stake (1995):

• Documents
• Archival records
• Interviews
• Direct observation
• Participant-observation
• Physical artifacts

Documents could be letters, memoranda, agendas, administrative documents, newspaper articles, or any document that is germane to the investigation. In the interest of triangulation of evidence, the documents serve to corroborate the evidence from other sources. Documents are also useful for making inferences about events. Documents can lead to false leads, in the hands of inexperienced researchers, which has been a criticism of case study research. Documents are communications between parties in the study, the researcher being a vicarious observer; keeping this in mind will help the investigator avoid being misled by such documents.

Archival documents can be service records, organizational records, lists of names, survey data, and other such records. The investigator has to be careful in evaluating the accuracy of the records before using them. Even if the records are quantitative, they might still not be accurate.

Interviews are one of the most important sources of case study information. There are several forms of interviews that are possible: Open-ended, Focused, and Structured or survey. In an open-ended interview, key respondents are asked to comment about certain events. They may propose solutions or provide insight into events. They may also corroborate evidence obtained from other sources. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant, and seek the same data from other sources to verify its authenticity.

The focused interview is used in a situation where the respondent is interviewed for a short period of time, usually answering set questions. This technique is often used to confirm data collected from another source.

The structured interview is similar to a survey, and is used to gather data in cases such as neighborhood studies. The questions are detailed and developed in advance, much as they are in a survey.

Direct observation occurs when a field visit is conducted during the case study. It could be as simple as casual data collection activities, or formal protocols to measure and record behaviors. This technique is useful for providing additional information about the topic being studied. The reliability is enhanced when more than one observer is involved in the task. Glesne and Peshkin (1992) recommended that researchers should be as unobtrusive as the wallpaper.

Participant-observation makes the researcher into an active participant in the events being studied. This often occurs in studies of neighborhoods or groups. The technique provides some unusual opportunities for collecting data, but could face some major problems as well. The researcher could well alter the course of events as part of the group, which may not be helpful to the study.

Physical artifacts can be tools, instruments, or some other physical evidence that may be collected during the study as part of a field visit. The perspective of the researcher can be broadened as a result of the discovery.

It is important to keep in mind that not all sources are relevant for all case studies (Yin, 1994). The investigator should be capable of dealing with all of them, should it be necessary, but each case will present different opportunities for data collection.

There are some conditions that arise when a case researcher must start data collection before the study questions have been defined and finalized (Yin, 1994). This is likely to be successful only with an experienced investigator. Another important point to review is the benefit of using rival hypotheses and theories as a means of adding quality control to the case study. This improves the perception of the fairness and serious thinking of the researcher.

E.     Types of Case Studies

In exploratory case studies, fieldwork, and data collection may be undertaken prior to definition of the research questions and hypotheses. This type of study has been considered as a prelude to some social research. However, the framework of the study must be created ahead of time. Pilot projects are very useful in determining the final protocols that will be used. Survey questions may be dropped or added based on the outcome of the pilot study. Selecting cases is a difficult process, but the literature provides guidance in this area (Yin, 1989a). Stake (1995) recommended that the selection offers the opportunity to maximize what can be learned, knowing that time is limited. Hence the cases that are selected should be easy and willing subjects. A good instrumental case does not have to defend its typicality.

Explanatory cases are suitable for doing causal studies. In very complex and multivariate cases, the analysis can make use of pattern-matching techniques. Yin and Moore (1988) conducted a study to examine the reason why some research findings get into practical use. They used a funded research project as the unit of analysis, where the topic was constant but the project varied. The utilization outcomes were explained by three rival theories: a knowledge-driven theory, a problem-solving theory, and a social-interaction theory.

Knowledge-driven theory means that ideas and discoveries from basic research eventually become commercial products. Problem-solving theory follows the same path, but originates not with a researcher, but with an external source identifying a problem. The social-interaction theory claims that researchers and users belong to overlapping professional networks and are in frequent communication.

Descriptive cases require that the investigator begin with a descriptive theory, or face the possibility that problems will occur during the project. Pyecha (1988) used this methodology to study special education, using a pattern-matching procedure. Several states were studied and the data about each state's activities were compared to another, with idealized theoretic patterns. Thus what is implied in this type of study is the formation of hypotheses of cause-effect relationships. Hence the descriptive theory must cover the depth and scope of the case under study. The selection of cases and the unit of analysis is developed in the same manner as the other types of case studies.

F.     Data collection

Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions. Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis.

Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a pilot study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious barriers and problems. The investigator training program covers the basic concepts of the study, terminology, processes, and methods, and teaches investigators how to properly apply the techniques being used in the study. The program also trains investigators to understand how the gathering of data using multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing opportunities for triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for narrative reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and guidelines for field procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good listeners who can hear exactly the words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications for investigators also include being able to ask good questions and interpret answers. Good investigators review documents looking for facts, but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative evidence elsewhere when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-life situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware that they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened or unsure of what the case study will bring.

After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and events, identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the research design in order to address and add to the original set of research questions.

G.    Analyzing Case Study Evidence

This aspect of the case study methodology is the least developed and hence the most difficult. As a result, some researchers have suggested that if the study were made conducive to statistical analysis, the process would be easier and more acceptable. This quantitative approach would be appealing to some of the critics of the case study methodology. However not all case studies lend themselves to this type of analysis. Miles and Huberman (1984) suggested analytic techniques such as rearranging the arrays, placing the evidence in a matrix of categories, creating flowcharts or data displays, tabulating the frequency of different events, using means, variances and cross tabulations to examine the relationships between variables, and other such techniques to facilitate analysis.

There must first be an analytic strategy, that will lead to conclusions. Yin (1994) presented two strategies for general use: One is to rely on theoretical propositions of the study, and then to analyze the evidence based on those propositions. The other technique is to develop a case description, which would be a framework for organizing the case study. Lynd conducted a widely cited "Middletown" study in 1929, and used a formal chapter construct to guide the development of the analysis. In other situations, the original objective of the case study may help to identify some causal links that could be analyzed.

Pattern-matching is another major mode of analysis. This type of logic compares an empirical pattern with a predicted one. Internal validity is enhanced when the patterns coincide. If the case study is an explanatory one, the patterns may be related to the dependent or independent variables. If it is a descriptive study, the predicted pattern must be defined prior to data collection. Yin (1994) recommended using rival explanations as pattern-matching when there are independent variables involved. This requires the development of rival theoretical propositions, but the overall concern remains the degree to which a pattern matches the predicted one.

Yin (1994) encouraged researchers to make every effort to produce an analysis of the highest quality. In order to accomplish this, he presented four principles that should attract the researcher's attention:

• Show that the analysis relied on all the relevant evidence
• Include all major rival interpretations in the analysis
• Address the most significant aspect of the case study
• Use the researcher's prior, expert knowledge to further the analysis

Stake (1995) recommended categorical aggregation as another means of analysis and also suggested developing protocols for this phase of the case study to enhance the quality of the research. He also presented ideas on pattern-matching along the lines that Yin (1994) presented. Runkel (1990) used aggregated measures to obtain relative frequencies in a multiple-case study. Stake (1995) favored coding the data and identifying the issues more clearly at the analysis stage. Eisner and Peshkin (1990) placed a high priority on direct interpretation of events, and lower on interpretation of measurement data, which is another viable alternative to be considered.

There have been some valuable sources of information and guidance for case study methodologies. Hamel (Hamel et al., 1993), Stake (1995), and Yin (1984, 1989a, 1994) in particular have provided specific guidelines for the development of the design and execution of a case study. This researcher examines the proposed methodology for the development of survey instruments. This aspect is an important element of the data gathering function in the study.

Case study is a valuable method of research, with distinctive characteristics that make it ideal for many types of investigations. It can also be used in combination with other methods. Its use and reliability should make it a more widely used methodology, once its features are better understood by potential researchers.

CONCLUSION

The case study is a very valuable approach to L2 research. While enjoying a strong tradition in child language research and a solid place in L2 acquisition research. It has been viewed as no rigorous by some and has had relatively low status in social science and educational research until recently. the mayor disadvantage of a case study, from the hypothetic of deductive perspective, is that one can not generalize findings to other cases. Yet notions of generalization are problematic and are a topic of continual discussion and debate in all approaches to research.

In L2 studies, the case study approach is particularly useful for studying the kinds of issues illustrated in this paper. Such as learning processes and strategies, the nature of individual L2 written and oral development, and sociopsychological and effective aspects of classroom learning. The close and holistic look at a case in the context of the bounded system chosen for study can yield many rich insights about teaching and learning processes.